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The basic premise of self-efficacy theory is that "people's beliefs in their capabilities to produce desired effects by their own actions" (Bandura, 1997, p. vii) are the most important determinants of the behaviors people choose to engage in and how much they persevere in their efforts in the face of obstacles and challenges. Self-efficacy theory also maintains that these efficacy beliefs play a crucial role in psychological adjustment, psychological problems, physical health, as well as professionally guided and self-guided behavioral change strategies. This chapter provides an overview of self-efficacy theory and research by addressing three basic questions: (a) What is self-efficacy? (b) Where do self-efficacy beliefs come from? (c) Why is self-efficacy important? The chapter also discusses "collective efficacy"-group members' beliefs in their ability to collectively accomplish shared goals.

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CHAPTER 31

Self-Efficacy: The Power of Believing You Can

James E. Maddux

Abstract

The basic premise of self-efficacy theory is that "people's beliefs in their capabilities

to produce desired effects by their own actions" (Bandura, 1997, p. vii) are the most

important determinants of the behaviors people choose to engage in and how much

they persevere in their efforts in the face of obstacles and challenges. Self-efficacy

theory also maintains that these efficacy beliefs play a crucial role in psychological

adjustment, psychological problems, physical health, as well as professionally guided

and self-guided behavioral change strategies. This chapter provides an overview of

self-efficacy theory and research by addressing three basic questions: (a) What is self-

efficacy? (b) Where do self-efficacy beliefs come from? (c) Why is self-efficacy

important? The chapter also discusses "collective efficacy"—group members' beliefs

in their ability to collectively accomplish shared goals.

Keywords: collective efficacy, outcome expectancies, self-efficacy, self-regulation,

social cognitive theory

The very little engine looked up and saw the tears in the dolls' eyes. And she

thought of the good little boys and girls on the other side of the mountain who

would not have any toys or good food unless she helped. Then she said, "I

think I can. I think I can. I think I can."

—The little engine that could (Piper, 1930/1989)

Some of the most powerful truths also are the simplest—so simple that a child can

understand them. The concept of "self-efficacy" deals with one of these truths—one

so simple it can be captured in a children's book of 37 pages (with illustrations), yet

so powerful that fully describing its implications has filled thousands of pages in

scientific journals and books over the past three decades. This truth is that believing

that you can accomplish what you want to accomplish is one of the most important

ingredients—perhaps the most important ingredient—in the recipe for success. Any

child who has read The little engine that could knows this is so. For 30 years,

hundreds of researchers have been trying to tell us why this is so.

The basic premise of self-efficacy theory is that "people's beliefs in their

capabilities to produce desired effects by their own actions" (Bandura, 1997, p. vii)

are the most important determinants of the behaviors people choose to engage in and

how much they persevere in their efforts in the face of obstacles and challenges. Self-

efficacy theory also maintains that these efficacy beliefs play a crucial role in

psychological adjustment, psychological problems, physical health, as well as

professionally guided and self-guided behavioral change strategies.

Since the publication of Albert Bandura's 1977 Psychological Review article

titled "Self-Efficacy: Toward a Unifying Theory of Behavior Change," the term "self-

efficacy" has become ubiquitous in psychology and related fields. Hundreds of

articles on every imaginable aspect of self-efficacy have appeared in journals devoted

to psychology, sociology, kinesiology, public health, medicine, nursing, and other

fields. In this chapter, I attempt to summarize what we have learned from over three

decades of research on self-efficacy. I will address three basic questions: What is self-

efficacy? Where does it come from? Why is it important?

What Is Self-Efficacy?

A Very Brief History

Although the term "self-efficacy" is of recent origin, interest in beliefs about

personal control has a long history in philosophy and psychology. Spinoza, David

Hume, John Locke, William James, and (more recently) Gilbert Ryle have all

struggled with understanding the role of "volition" and "the will" in human behavior

(Russell, 1945; Vessey, 1967). The theories of effectance motivation (White, 1959),

achievement motivation (McClelland, Atkinson, Clark, & Lowell, 1953), social

learning (Rotter, 1966), and helplessness (Abramson, Seligman, & Teasdale, 1978)

are just a few of the many theories that have sought to explore relationships between

perceptions of personal competence and human behavior and psychological well-

being (see also Skinner, 1995; Molden & Dweck, 2006). Bandura's 1977 article,

however, formalized the notion of perceived competence as "self-efficacy," defined it

clearly, and embedded it in a theory of how it develops and influences human

behavior.

Defining Self-Efficacy

One of the best ways to get a clear sense of how self-efficacy is defined and

measured is to distinguish it from related concepts. Self-efficacy is not perceived skill;

it is what I believe I can do with my skills under certain conditions. It is not concerned

with my beliefs about my ability to perform specific and trivial motor acts, but with

my beliefs about my ability to coordinate and orchestrate skills and abilities in

changing and challenging situations.

Self-efficacy beliefs are not simply predictions about behavior. Self-efficacy is

concerned not with that I believe I will do but with what I believe I can do.

Self-efficacy beliefs are not casual attributions. Casual attributions are

explanations for events, including my own behavior and its consequences. Self-

efficacy beliefs are my beliefs about what I am capable of doing.

Self-efficacy beliefs are not intentions to behave or intentions to attain a

particular goal. An intention is what I say I will probably do; and research has shown

that intentions are influenced by a number of factors, including, but not limited to,

self-efficacy beliefs (Maddux, 1999a).

Self-efficacy is not self-esteem. Self-esteem is what I believe about myself,

and how I feel about what I believe about myself. Efficacy beliefs in a given domain

will contribute to my self-esteem only in direct proportion to the importance I place

on that domain.

Self-efficacy is not a motive, drive, or need for control. I can have a strong

need for control in a particular domain and still hold weak beliefs about my efficacy

for that domain.

Self-efficacy beliefs are not outcome expectancies (Bandura, 1997) or

behavior–outcome expectancies (Maddux, 1999a). A behavior–outcome expectancy is

my belief that a specific behavior may lead to a specific outcome in a specific

situation. A self-efficacy belief is the belief that I can perform the behavior or

behaviors that produce the outcome.

Self-efficacy is not a personality trait. It is a set of beliefs about the ability to

coordinate skills and abilities to attain desired goals in particular domains and

circumstances. Measures of "general" self-efficacy have been developed (e.g., Chen,

Gully, & Eden, 2001; Sherer et al., 1982; Tipton & Worthington, 1984) and are used

frequently in research, but they have not been as useful as more specific self-efficacy

measures in predicting what people will do under more specific circumstances

(Bandura, 1997; Maddux, 1995).

Where Do Self-Efficacy Beliefs Come From?

Understanding how self-efficacy beliefs develop requires understanding a

broader theoretical background. Self-efficacy is best understood in the context of

social cognitive theory—an approach to understanding human cognition, action,

motivation, and emotion that assumes that we are active shapers of rather than simply

passive reactors to our environments (Bandura, 2001, 2006; Barone, Maddux, &

Snyder, 1997; Molden & Dweck, 2006). Social cognitive theory's four basic premises,

shortened and simplified, are

1. We have powerful cognitive capabilities that allow for the creation of internal

models of experience, the development of innovative courses of action, the

hypothetical testing of such courses of action through the prediction of

outcomes, and the communication of complex ideas and experiences to others.

We also can engage in self-observation and can analyze and evaluate our own

behavior, thoughts, and emotions. These self-reflective activities set the stage

for self-regulation.

2. Environmental events, inner personal factors (cognition, emotion, and

biological events), and behaviors are interactive influences. We respond

cognitively, effectively, and behaviorally to environmental events. Also,

through cognition we exercise control over our own behavior, which then

influences not only the environment but also our cognitive, affective, and

biological states.

3. "Self" and "personality" are socially embedded. They are perceptions

(accurate or not) of our own and others' patterns of social cognition, emotion,

and action as they occur in patterns of situations. Thus, self and personality are

not simply what we bring to our interactions with others; they are created in

these interactions, and they change through these interactions.

4. We are capable of self-regulation. We choose goals and regulate our behavior

in the pursuit of these goals. At the heart of self-regulation is our ability to

anticipate or develop expectancies—to use past knowledge and experience to

form beliefs about future events and states and beliefs about our abilities and

behavior.

These assumptions suggest that the early development of self-efficacy beliefs

is influenced primarily by two interacting factors. First, it is influenced by the

development of the capacity for symbolic thought, particularly the capacity for

understanding cause–effect relationships and the capacity for self-observation and

self-reflection. The development of a sense of personal agency begins in infancy and

moves from the perception of the causal relationship between events, to an

understanding that actions produce results, to the recognition that they can be the

origin of actions that effect their environments. As children's understanding of

language increases, so do their capacity for symbolic thought and, therefore, their

capacity for self-awareness and a sense of personal agency (Bandura, 1997).

Second, the development of efficacy beliefs is influenced by the

responsiveness of environments to the infant's or child's attempts at manipulation and

control. Environments that are responsive to the child's actions facilitate the

development of efficacy beliefs, whereas nonresponsive environments retard this

development. The development of efficacy beliefs encourages exploration, which in

turn enhances the infant's sense of agency. The child's social environment (especially

parents) is usually the most important part of his or her environment. Thus, children

usually develop a sense of efficacy from engaging in actions that influence the

behavior of other people, which then generalizes to the nonsocial environment

(Bandura, 1997). Parents can facilitate or hinder the development of this sense of

agency not only by their responses to the infant's or child's actions, but also by

encouraging and enabling the child to explore and master his or her environment.

Efficacy beliefs and a sense of agency continue to develop throughout the life

span as we continually integrate information from five primary sources: performance

experiences, vicarious experiences, imagined experiences, verbal persuasion, and

physiological/emotional states.

Performance Experiences

Our own attempts to control our environments are the most powerful source of

self-efficacy information (Bandura, 1997). Successful attempts at control that I

attribute to my own efforts will strengthen self-efficacy for that behavior or domain.

For example, if I get strong ratings of teaching effectiveness from my students, and if

I attribute those ratings to my abilities as a teacher (vs. luck or easily pleased

students), then my self-efficacy beliefs for teaching will probably be strengthened.

Likewise, perceptions of failure that I attribute to lack of ability usually weaken self-

efficacy beliefs.

Vicarious Experiences

Self-efficacy beliefs are influenced by our observations of the behavior of

others and the consequences of those behaviors. We use this information to form

expectancies about our own behavior and its consequences, depending on the extent

to which we believe that we are similar to the person we are observing. Vicarious

experiences generally have weaker effects on self-efficacy expectancy than do

performance experiences (Bandura, 1997).

Imagined Experiences

We can influence self-efficacy beliefs by imagining ourselves or others

behaving effectively or ineffectively in hypothetical situations. Such images may be

derived from actual or vicarious experiences with situations similar to the one

anticipated, or they may be induced by verbal persuasion, as when a psychotherapist

guides a client through interventions, such as systematic desensitization and covert

modeling (Williams, 1995). Simply imagining myself doing something well, however,

is not likely to have as strong an influence on my self-efficacy as will an actual

experience (Williams, 1995).

Verbal Persuasion

Efficacy beliefs are influenced by what others say to us about what they

believe we can or cannot do. The potency of verbal persuasion as a source of self-

efficacy expectancies will be influenced by such factors as the expertness,

trustworthiness, and attractiveness of the source, as suggested by decades of research

on verbal persuasion and attitude change (e.g., Eagly & Chaiken, 1993). Verbal

persuasion is a less potent source of enduring change in self-efficacy expectancy than

performance experiences and vicarious experiences.

Physiological and Emotional States

Physiological and emotional states influence self-efficacy when we learn to

associate poor performance or perceived failure with aversive physiological arousal

and success with pleasant feeling states. When I become aware of unpleasant

physiological arousal, I am more likely to doubt my competence than if my

physiological state were pleasant or neutral. Likewise, comfortable physiological

sensations are likely to lead me to feel confident in my ability in the situation at hand.

Physiological indicants of self-efficacy expectancy, however, extend beyond

autonomic arousal. For example, in activities involving strength and stamina, such as

exercise and athletic performances, perceived efficacy is influenced by such

experiences as fatigue and pain (e.g., Bandura, 1997.)

Why Is Self-Efficacy Important?

Fully describing the many ways that self-efficacy beliefs are important would

take hundreds of pages. I will focus on five areas: self-efficacy and psychological

adjustment; self-efficacy and physical health; self-efficacy and self-regulation; self-

efficacy and psychotherapy; and collective efficacy.

Self-Efficacy and Psychological Well-Being

Most philosophers and psychological theorists agree that a sense of control

over our behavior, our environment, and our own thoughts and feelings is essential for

happiness and a sense of psychological well-being. Feelings of loss of control are

common among people who seek the help of psychotherapists and counselors.

Self-efficacy beliefs play a major role in a number of common psychological

problems, Low self-efficacy expectancies are an important feature of depression

(Bandura, 1997; Maddux & Meier, 1995). Depressed people usually believe they are

less capable than other people of behaving effectively in many important areas of life.

Dysfunctional anxiety and avoidant behavior are the direct result of low-self-efficacy

beliefs for managing threatening situations (Bandura, 1997; Williams, 1995). Self-

efficacy beliefs also play a powerful role in substance abuse problems and eating

disorders (Bandura, 1997; DiClemente, Fairhurst, & Piotrowski, 1995). For each of

these problems, enhancing self-efficacy for overcoming the problem and for

implementing self-control strategies in specific challenging situations is essential to

the success of therapeutic interventions (Bandura, 1997; Maddux, 1995).

Self-Efficacy and Physical Health

Most strategies for preventing health problems, enhancing health, and

hastening recovery from illness and injury involve changing behavior. Research on

self-efficacy has greatly enhanced our understanding of how and why people adopt

healthy and unhealthy behaviors and of how to change behaviors that affect health

(Bandura, 1997; Maddux, Brawley, & Boykin, 1995; O'Leary & Brown, 1995).

Beliefs about self-efficacy influence health in two ways.

First, self-efficacy beliefs influence the adoption of healthy behaviors, the

cessation of unhealthy behaviors, and the maintenance of behavioral changes in the

face of challenge and difficulty. All of the major theories of health behavior, such as

protection motivation theory (Maddux & Rogers, 1983; Rogers & Prentice-Dunn,

1997), the health belief model (Strecher, Champion, & Rosenstock, 1997), and the

theory or reasoned action/ planned behavior (Ajzen, 1988; Fishbein & Ajzen, 1975;

Maddux & DuCharme, 1997), include self-efficacy as a key component (see also

Maddux, 1993; Weinstein, 1993). In addition, researchers have shown that enhancing

self-efficacy beliefs is crucial to successful change and maintenance of virtually every

behavior crucial to health, including exercise, diet, stress management, safe sex,

smoking cessation, overcoming alcohol abuse, compliance with treatment and

prevention regimens, and disease detection behaviors such as breast self-examinations

(Bandura, 1997; Maddux et al., 1995).

Second, self-efficacy beliefs influence a number of biological processes,

which, in turn, influence health and disease (Bandura, 1997). Self-efficacy beliefs

affect the body's physiological responses to stress, including the immune system

(Bandura, 1997; O'Leary & Brown, 1995). Lack of perceived control over

environmental demands can increase susceptibility to infections and hasten the

progression of disease (Bandura, 1997). Self-efficacy beliefs also influence the

activation of catecholamines, a family of neurotransmitters important to the

management of stress and perceived threat, along with the endogenous painkillers

referred to as endorphins (Bandura, 1997; O'Leary & Brown, 1995).

Self-Efficacy and Self-Regulation

Research on self-efficacy has added greatly to our understanding of how we

guide our own behavior in the pursuit of desired goals. Self-regulation (simplified)

depends on three interacting components (Barone et al., 1997): goals or standards of

performance; self-evaluative reactions to performance; and self-efficacy beliefs.

Goals are essential to self-regulation because we attempt to regulate our

actions, thoughts, and emotions to achieve desired outcomes. The ability to envision

desired future events and states allows us to create incentives that motivate and guide

our actions and standards against which to monitor our progress and evaluate both our

progress and our abilities (chap. 30).

Self-evaluative reactions are important in self-regulation because our beliefs

about the progress we are making (or not making) toward our goals are major

determinants of our emotional reactions during goal-directed activity. These

emotional reactions, in turn, can enhance or disrupt self-regulation.

Self-efficacy beliefs influence self-regulation in several ways. First, they

influence the goals we set. The higher my self-efficacy in a specific achievement

domain, the loftier will be the goals that I set for myself in that domain. Second, they

influence our choices of goal-directed activities, expenditure of effort, persistence in

the face of challenge and obstacles (Bandura, 1997), and reactions to perceived

discrepancies between goals and current performance (Bandura, 1997). If I have

strong efficacy beliefs, I will be relatively resistant to the disruptions in self-

regulation that can result from difficulties and setbacks, and I will persevere.

Perseverance usually produces desired results, and this success then increases my

sense of efficacy (see also chap. 12).

Third, self-efficacy beliefs influence the efficiency and effectiveness of

problem solving and decision making (see also chap. 32). When faced with complex

decisions, people who have confidence in their ability to solve problems use their

cognitive resources more effectively than do those people who doubt their cognitive

skills (e.g., Bandura, 1997). Such efficacy usually leads to better solutions and greater

achievement. In the face of difficulty, if I have high self-efficacy, I am likely to

remain "task-diagnostic" and continue to search for solutions to problems. If my self-

efficacy is low, however, I am more likely to become "self-diagnostic" and reflect on

my inadequacies, which detracts from my efforts to assess and solve the problem

(Bandura, 1997).

Self-Efficacy and Psychotherapy

I use the term "psychotherapy" to refer broadly to professionally guided

interventions designed to enhance psychological well-being, while acknowledging

that self-regulation plays an important role in all such interventions. Different

interventions, or different components of an intervention, may be equally effective

because they equally enhance self-efficacy for crucial behavioral and cognitive skills

(Bandura, 1997; Maddux & Lewis, 1995).

Self-efficacy theory emphasizes the importance of arranging experiences

designed to increase the person's sense of efficacy for specific behaviors in specific

problematic and challenging situations. Self-efficacy theory suggests that formal

interventions should not simply resolve specific problems, but should provide people

with the skills and sense of efficacy for solving problems themselves. Some basic

strategies for enhancing self-efficacy are based on the five sources of self-efficacy

previously noted.

Performance experience. The phrase "seeing is believing" underscores the

importance of providing people with tangible evidence of their success. When people

actually can see themselves coping effectively with difficult situations, their sense of

mastery is likely to be heightened. These experiences are likely to be most successful

when both goals and strategies are specific. Goals that are concrete, specific, and

proximal (short-range) provide greater incentive, motivation, and evidence of efficacy

than goals that are abstract, vague, and set in the distant future (chap. 30). Specific

goals allow people to identify the specific behaviors needed for successful

achievement and to know when they have succeeded (chap. 30). For example, the

most effective interventions for phobias and fears involve "guided mastery"—in vivo

experience with the feared object or situation during therapy sessions, or between

sessions as "homework" assignments (Williams, 1995). Recent technological

advances now allow for the use of "virtual reality" experiences in the treatment of

phobias and fears (e.g., Rothbaum et al., 2006). In cognitive treatments of depression,

clients are provided structured guidance in arranging success experiences that will

counteract low-self-efficacy expectancies (Maddux & Lewis, 1995).

Vicarious experience. Vicarious learning and imagination can be used to teach

new skills and enhance self-efficacy for those skills. For example, modeling films and

videotapes have been used successfully to encourage socially withdrawn children to

interact with other children. The child viewing the film sees the model child, someone

much like himself or herself, experience success and comes to believe that he or she

too can do the same thing (Conger & Keane, 1981). In vivo modeling has been used

successfully in the treatment of phobic individuals. This research has shown that

changes in self-efficacy beliefs for approach behaviors mediate adaptive behavioral

changes (Bandura, 1986; Williams 1995). Common everyday (nonprofessional)

examples of the use of vicarious experiences to enhance self-efficacy include

advertisements for weight loss and smoking cessation programs that feature

testimonials from successful people. The clear message from these testimonials is that

the listener or reader also can accomplish this difficult task. Formal and informal

support groups—people sharing their personal experiences in overcoming a common

adversity, such as addiction, obesity, or illness—also provide forums for the

enhancement of self-efficacy.

Imagined experience. Live or filmed models may be difficult to obtain, but the

imagination is an easily harnessed resource. Imagining ourselves engaging in feared

behaviors or overcoming difficulties can be used to enhance self-efficacy. For

example, cognitive therapy of anxiety and fear problems often involves modifying

visual images of danger and anxiety, including images of coping effectively with the

feared situation. Imaginal (covert) modeling has been used successfully in

interventions to increase assertive behavior and self-efficacy for assertiveness

(Kazdin, 1979). Systematic desensitization and implosion are traditional behavioral

therapy techniques that rely on the ability to image coping effectively with a difficult

situation (Emmelkamp, 1994). Because maladaptive distorted imagery is an important

component of anxiety and depression, various techniques have been developed to help

clients modify distortions and maladaptive assumptions contained in their visual

images of danger and anxiety. A client can gain a sense of control over a feared

situation by imagining a future self that can deal effectively with the situation.

Verbal persuasion. Most formal psychological interventions rely strongly on

verbal persuasion to enhance a client's self-efficacy and encouraging small risks that

may lead to small successes. In cognitive and cognitive-behavioral therapies (Holland,

Stewart, & Strunk, 2006), the therapist engages the client in a discussion of the

client's dysfunctional beliefs, attitudes, and expectancies and helps the client see the

irrationality and self-defeating nature of such beliefs. The therapist encourages the

client to adopt new, more adaptive beliefs and to act on these new beliefs and

expectancies. As a result, the client experiences the successes that can lead to more

enduring changes in self-efficacy beliefs and adaptive behavior. People also rely daily

on verbal persuasion as a self-efficacy facilitator by seeking the support of other

people when attempting to lose weight, quit smoking, maintain an exercise program,

or summon up the courage to confront a difficult boss or loved one.

Physiological and emotional states. We usually feel more self-efficacious

when we are calm than when we are aroused and distressed. Thus, strategies for

controlling and reducing emotional arousal (specifically anxiety) while attempting

new behaviors should enhance self-efficacy beliefs and increase the likelihood of

successful implementation. Hypnosis, biofeedback, relaxation training, meditation,

and medication are the most common strategies for reducing the physiological arousal

typically associated with low self-efficacy and poor performance.

Collective Efficacy

This chapter has focused so far on the efficacy beliefs of individuals about

themselves as individuals. Positive psychology and social cognitive theory both

emphasize the social embeddedness of the individual. For this reason, I cannot leave

the concept of efficacy locked inside the person. Accomplishing important goals in

groups, organizations, and societies always has depended on the ability of individuals

to identify the abilities of other individuals and to harness these abilities to

accomplish common goals. Thus, in self-efficacy theory, it is recognized that no man

or woman is an island and that there are limits to what individuals can accomplish

alone. This idea is captured in the notion of "collective efficacy": "a group's shared

belief in its conjoint capabilities to organize and execute the courses of action required

for producing given levels of attainments" (Bandura, 1997, p. 477; also Zaccaro,

Blair, Peterson, & Zazanis, 1995). Simply stated, collective efficacy is the extent to

which we believe that we can work together effectively to accomplish our shared

goals.

Despite a lack of consensus on its measurement (Bandura, 1997; Maddux,

1999b), collective efficacy has been found to be important to a number of collectives.

The more efficacious spouses feel about their shared ability to accomplish important

shared goals, the more satisfied they are with their marriages (Kaplan & Maddux,

2002). The same is true of college-age dating couples (Zapata & Maddux, 2006). The

collective efficacy of an athletic team can be raised or lowered by false feedback

about ability and can subsequently influence its success in competitions (Hodges &

Carron, 1992). The individual and collective efficacy of teachers for effective

instruction seems to affect the academic achievement of school children (Bandura,

1993, 1997). The effectiveness of self-managing work teams (Little & Madigan,

1994) and group "brainstorming" (Prussia & Kinicki, 1996) also seems to be related

to a collective sense of efficacy. Researchers are also beginning to understand the

origins of collective efficacy for social and political change (Fernandez-Ballesteros,

Diez-Nicolas, Caprara, Barbaranelli, & Bandura, 2000). Of course, personal efficacy

and collective efficacy go hand-in-hand because a "collection of inveterate self-

doubters is not easily forged into a collectively efficacious force" (Bandura, 1997, p.

480).

Summary

In the past three decades, we have learned much about the role of self-efficacy

beliefs and psychological adjustment and maladjustment, physical health, and self-

guided and professionally guided behavior change. There is, of course, much more to

be learned. In keeping with the agenda of positive psychology, I suggest two broad

avenues of future research.

First, positive psychology emphasizes the development of positive human

qualities and the facilitation of psychological health and happiness over the mere

prevention of or remediation of negative human qualities and human misery. It also

embraces the notion that individuals can be self-initiating agents for change in their

own lives and the lives of others. The emphasis of social cognitive theory and self-

efficacy theory on the development of "enablement"—providing people with skills for

selecting and attaining the life goals they desire—over prevention and risk reduction

is consonant with both of these emphases. Self-efficacy research concerned with

enhancing our understanding of self-regulation will enhance our understanding of

how to provide people with these enablement skills.

Second, positive psychology emphasizes the social embeddedness of the

individual and acknowledges that my individual success and happiness depends to a

large degree on my ability to cooperate, collaborate, negotiate, and otherwise live in

harmony with other people. In addition, the ability of businesses, organizations,

communities, and governments (local, state, and national) to achieve their goals will

increasingly depend on their ability to coordinate their efforts, particularly because

these goals often conflict. For this reason, collective efficacy—including collective

efficacy in organizations and schools, and efficacy for social and political change—

provides numerous important questions for future research. In a world in which

communication across the globe often is faster than communication across the street,

and in which cooperation and collaboration in commerce and government is

becoming increasingly common and increasingly crucial, understanding collective

efficacy will become increasingly important.

The simple yet powerful truth that children learn from The little engine that

could has been amply supported by over three decades of self-efficacy research—

namely, that when equipped with an unshakable belief in one's ideas, goals, and

capacity for achievement, there are few limits to what one can accomplish. As

Bandura (1997) has stated, "People see the extraordinary feats of others but not the

unwavering commitment and countless hours of perseverant effort that produced

them" (p. 119). They then overestimate the role of "talent" in these accomplishments,

while underestimating the role of self-regulation. The timeless message of research on

self-efficacy is the simple, powerful truth that confidence, effort, and persistence are

more potent than innate ability. In this sense, self-efficacy is concerned with human

potential and possibilities, not limitations, thus making it a truly "positive"

psychology.

Future Questions

1. It is clear that self-efficacy beliefs are important in the initiation of behavior

changes, but additional research is needed on the role that self-efficacy beliefs play in

the ongoing process of self-regulation. What is the complex interaction among self-

efficacy beliefs and the other major components of self-regulation such as goals,

intentions, plans, and so on?

2. Is there any utility in refining scales of "general self-efficacy" and

continuing to use them in research?

3. What role do beliefs about collective efficacy play in organizational change

and societal-level changes and movements (e.g., political movements)?

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... Self-efficacy is a result of the confidence people have in their own abilities [27]. Reference [34] sees "Self-efficacy is concerned not with that I believe I will do but with what I believe I can do." (p.4). ...

... (P.87). This was also supported by [34] based on basic assumptions of social cognitive theory that self-efficacy is developed by two factors interaction. The first is the capacity of understanding cause and effect relations, self-observations and self-reflection. ...

... The first is the capacity of understanding cause and effect relations, self-observations and self-reflection. The second is the responsiveness of environments to the child's actions [34]. Reference [11] recommended principles that lead to officious students in PYP schools; create learning environments that encourages students take ownership of their learning, provide opportunities for reflection, encourage collaboration, use authentic tasks and problems, scaffold and support students' learning, create a culture of learning and respect for others. ...

Nevine El Souefi

The holistic approach of the International Baccalaureate (IB) programmes encourages students to become active, compassionate and lifelong learners. The IB defines its international education programmes through a learner profile that consists of ten attributes; inquirers, knowledgeable, thinkers, communicators, principled, open-minded, caring, risk-takers, balanced, and reflective [33]. For students to reach all IB learners profile attributes they need to be self-regulated learners [36]. Students' self-efficacy beliefs are one of the components of self-regulated learning [15], and a key component of social cognitive theory [4]. Self-efficacy beliefs also contribute to students' academic achievements, motivations and learning [41]. The Primary Years Programme (PYP) is the IB curriculum framework for children aged 3-11 that offers an inquiry-based, transdisciplinary curriculum framework building conceptual understandings. By learning through inquiry PYP students use their initiatives and take responsibility for their own learning [33]. This approach in learning claims to build students' self-efficacy that contributes to self-regulation [36]. The paper presents an inductive qualitative study capturing the impact of implementing the IB PYP on students' self-efficacy beliefs. The study was conducted in an IBPYP candidate school in Alexandria (second largest city in Egypt), which had been implementing the PYP for two years. Data was collected through four focus group discussions from different stakeholders; leaders, teachers, students and parents. The study findings revealed the perspectives of the different stakeholders about the reasons behind students' self-efficacy beliefs. The study resulted in an interpretation of a spiral for the different aspects of PYP pedagogy that relate and integrate to support students' self-efficacy beliefs. The study resulted also in identifying specific aspects in school culture that support students' self-efficacy beliefs. The findings of the study will be beneficial to teachers, leaders and policy makers in IBPYP schools. Beneficial for the students, teachers, policy makers and syllabus designers.

... Ayrıca kontrol odağı iyimserlik, ümitkârlık ve dayanıklılık gibi algılanan yeterlilik ve kontrol kavramları genellikle kişilerin kişilik özellikleri ya da kişilik özelliğine benzer yapılar olarak görülmektedir (Maddux, 2002). Diğer taraftan özyeterlilik bir kişilik özelliği olarak değil, çevre ve kişinin tecrübeleri ile zaman içinde ortaya çıkan ve kişinin istediği hedeflere ulaşmada kendisine olan inancını gösteren bir kavramdır (Maddux, 2002). ...

... Başka bir ifade, öz-yeterlilik kişinin "ben bunu yapabilirim" anlayışına sahip olmasıdır. Birçok araştırmacı başarıya inanmanın başarı için en önemli faktör olduğunu vurgulamıştır (Maddux, 2002). Ayrıca Theodore Roosevelt tarafından söylenmiş ve artık birçok kültürde yaygın olarak kullanılan "inanmak başarmanın yarısıdır [believe you can, and you are half way there]" ifadesi de inanmanın başarmak için ne kadar önemli olduğunu göstermektedir. ...

Abdulkadir Haktanir

21. yüzyılın getirdiği teknolojik, toplumsal ve eğitim alanlarındaki değişimler göz önüne alındığında, geleneksel eğitimin bilgiyi aktarma ve ezberletme mantığının işlevselliğini kaybettiği gözlenmiştir. İçinde bulunduğumuz dönem içinde hayat boyu öğrenme, bilişsel becerilerin arttırılması ve teknoloji kullanımının önem kazandığı görülmektedir. Bu beceriler ilerleyen dönemlerde de farklı boyutlarda ihtiyaçlara göre geliştirilebilir. Tüm bunlara bakıldığında kişinin öğrenmek için motivasyonunun olması ve yeni öğrenme durumları ortaya çıktığında bunları başarabileceğine inanması önem arz etmektedir. 'İnanmak, başarmanın yarısıdır' ifadesi kişinin yapabileceğine inanmasının başarı yolunda önemini özetler. Kişinin yapabileceğine olan inancı literatürde öz-yeterlilik olarak kavramsallaştırılmıştır. Öz-yeterlilik inançlarının yüksekliği, bedensel ve psikolojik sağlık ile yüksek öz-düzenleme kapasitesi gibi kavramlarla ilişkili bulunmuştur. Ayrıca literatürde yüksek öz-yeterlilik ile motivasyon, öğrenme ve başarı arasındaki ilişki vurgulanmış ve öz-yeterlilik kavramı öğrencilere kazandırılması gereken bir özellik olarak görülmeye başlanmıştır. Öz-yeterlilik hayatın ilk yıllarından itibaren kişinin çevresi ile olan etkileşiminden etkilenir. Ayrıca, direk olarak performans tecrübesine sahip olma, başkalarının yaşadığı başarıları gözlemleyerek elde edilen dolaylı tecrübeler, kişinin sözel olarak teşvik edilmesi ve cesaretlendirilmesi, kişinin fizyolojik ve psikolojik durumu öz-yeterliliği etkilemektedir. Bu çerçevede, öğretmen adayları kendi öz-yeterliliklerinin gelişmesi meslek ve alan bilgisi harmanlayarak öğretim faaliyetlerinde kullanma, becerisi yüksek akranların gözlemlenip model alınması, kendi sınıflarında olumlu sınıf ortamı oluşmasına katkıda bulunma ve öğrenmeye yönelik gerçekçi hedefler oluşturmak gibi stratejileri izleyerek kendi mesleki öz-yeterliliklerinin gelişmesine katkıda bulunabilirler. Ayrıca öğrencilerinin genel ve akademik öz-yeterliliklerinin gelişmesi için de hazırladıkları sınav ve ödevleri orta zorlukta hazırlayarak öğrencilere tek başlarına soruların çoğunu yapabilme başarısını tadabilme fırsatı vermek, dolaylı öğrenme için öğrencilerin birbirlerini gözlemlemelerine olanak sağlamak, öğrencileri başarıları olduklarında tebrik etmek ve gerekli durumlarda okul psikolojik danışmanı ile iş birliğinde bulunmak gibi stratejiler izleyebilirler.

... Perceived self-efficacy is concerned with individuals' beliefs in their capabilities to produce desired effects and attainments by their own actions [54], [55], [56]. Self-efficacy beliefs determine the way people feel, think, motivate themselves, behave, and perform. ...

... Prior meta-analysis research, focused on safety, confirmed that climate level positively and significantly influences safety motivation (willingness to exert effort to behave in a safe manner) and safety knowledge (knowledge of how to perform safely) [50]. Individuals' self-efficacy is developed by experiences of success and achieving the desired result [56], [57]. To experience success, individuals should acquire the knowledge required to handle their mission. ...

... We suggest that self-efficacy may explain these different behaviors. The basic premise of self-efficacy is that people's self-beliefs in their abilities to produce desired effects by their own actions are the most important determinants of the behaviors in which people choose to engage [56]. "Although self-efficacy sometimes is used to refer to one's general sense of competence and effectiveness, the term is most useful when defined, operationalized, and measured as expectancy specific to behavior or set of behaviors in a specific context" [63, p. 62]. ...

Security by design is a recommended approach, addressing end-to-end security and privacy in the design of software systems. To realize this approach, proactive security behavior is required from software developers. This research follows results from previous studies that suggest that personal and organizational characteristics influence security-related behaviors during the software design process. The research is aimed at gaining an in-depth understanding of proactive security behavior and the factors affecting it. Leveraging organization climate theory from organizational psychology, we propose a theoretical model, detailing different factors and their relations with proactive security behavior and test it in empirical settings. The empirical study was conducted in collaboration with an internationally distributed information technology enterprise and included a survey questionnaire completed by 499 software developers working in 7 countries. The results of the survey confirm the moderation-mediation relations in the proposed model, revealing that organizational security climate and security self-efficacy are both positively associated with proactive security behavior, organizational security climate is positively associated with security self-efficacy, and cultures promoting individualism moderate the relationship between organizational security climate and security self-efficacy, thus impeding proactive security behavior. The body of knowledge of organizational psychology points to directions that can effectively be activated for improvement.

... Self-efficacy is the belief in one's ability to produce the desired effect from one's own actions (Maddux, 2009). This confidence is not related to a commitment to actually do the behavior, nor is it tied to a certain outcome, it is simply believing that one is capable of producing the behavior that could create the results. ...

... This confidence is not related to a commitment to actually do the behavior, nor is it tied to a certain outcome, it is simply believing that one is capable of producing the behavior that could create the results. Self-efficacy beliefs can impact psychological well-being with a sense of control, leading to feelings of happiness whereas low self-efficacy can play a role in depression (Maddux, 2009). Rooted in social cognitive theory, an approach that assumes that we actively shape our environment, self-efficacy embraces the idea that people can be change agents in their own lives and the lives of others, and is concerned with human potential and possibilities (Maddux, 2009). ...

... Self-efficacy beliefs can impact psychological well-being with a sense of control, leading to feelings of happiness whereas low self-efficacy can play a role in depression (Maddux, 2009). Rooted in social cognitive theory, an approach that assumes that we actively shape our environment, self-efficacy embraces the idea that people can be change agents in their own lives and the lives of others, and is concerned with human potential and possibilities (Maddux, 2009). If the goal set at some point seems out of reach, pathways can be opened up by either adjusting the goal to meet the person's capabilities, increasing the person's skills through training and experience, or changing the person's perspective regarding their capacity (Locke, 1996). ...

Heidi S. B. Kaufman
Pia Dalal

In a world full of options of exercise platforms and modalities for individuals to choose from, what entices people to stick with a particular program? The exercise platform itself? The language the instructors use to motivate participants? Or is it the ability of a participant to choose from a menu of activities that keeps them engaged? To shed light on this topic, we analyzed physical activity as a positive intervention, using Peloton as an exemplar. Our capstone is divided into three parts. In Part I, we introduce positive psychology and the concept of positive interventions as a pathway to well-being and explain how Peloton is a positive intervention. In Part II, we examine the constructs of values, virtues, character strengths, agency, and their relationship to sustained engagement on the path to wellness. Pulling from the work of Lavy and Benish-Wiseman, we explore how character strengths are a pathway from values to positive social outcomes such as sustained engagement with an exercise platform. In Part III, we bring the concepts of Part I and Part II together and make three key observations: (1) Physical activity, with Peloton as an exemplar, is an undervalued yet effective positive intervention that deserves more research and application (2) Language portraying someone's values and strengths is a powerful tool in facilitating positive alignment in relationships (3) Empowering someone, a Peloton rider for example, with agency to determine how, when and with whom they align is an important part of voluntary sustained engagement.

... Self-efficacy is not an intention to attain a basic goal, according to the research intentions are influenced by number of other factors other than self-efficacy. It helps in producing desired effects by one's own actions (Maddux, 2012). ...

Gulzar Ahmad
Sania Kausar

Performing arts is very important means of creative communication such as music, dance, drama, mime, puppetry, circus, illusion, magic etc. Professionals may come across various difficulties, stresses and issues of psychological wellbeing but a little research on this subject is done in Pakistan. The objective of this study was to examine the relationship of perceived stress, self-efficacy and psychological well-being among performing arts students. The sample comprised of 203 (111 acting and 92 singing) performing arts students recruited from different colleges and universities of Pakistan. Simple linear regression analysis found that stress significantly negatively predicted four dimensions of psychological well-being such as environmental mastery, personal growth, positive relation and self-acceptance. Women showed significant higher levels of stress as compared to men among performing arts students. The research has implications for the performing arts students, counselors and therapists for the better understanding of stress, self-efficacy and dimensions of psychological well-being i.e. autonomy, environmental mastery, personal growth, positive relations, purpose in life and self-acceptance.

... Self-efficacy is a concept taken from social learning theory. Self-efficacy skills are felt; rather, those that are believed can be done with self skills in certain conditions (Bandura, 1977;Maddux, 2002). Students learn from other students or other groups when presenting and simulating learning practices as a learning scenario design, with or without the media. ...

... Tschannen et al. (1998) discussed self-efficacy as the teachers' belief in their capacity to organize and execute the course of actions to accomplish a specific teaching task in a particular context. According to Maddux (2002), it is a perception of what can be done with one's skill. ...

Kristīne Liepiņa
Lūcija Rutka

The early school leaving is an important topic in many countries. High early school leaving rates have many costs to individuals and society as a whole (Andrei et al., 2011). State Education Quality Service in Latvia implements European Social Fund Project No. 8.3.4.0/16/I/001 "Support for reducing early school leaving" to reduce the number of children and young people leaving school. The project promotes the creation of a sustainable cooperation system between the municipality, school, educators and parents to identify children and young people at risk of early school leaving and provide them with personalized support. Teacher has great influence on students' educational decisions (Dunn et al., 2004). The way teachers see themselves as professionals and how they compose their identities in schools is important factor in preventing early school leaving. In order for the teachers to feel confident in their contribution and possible positive solution to the problem, they must have knowledge of the problem and effective solutions. According to the Project teachers are given the opportunity to professionally develop and strengthen their skills for working with young people. The aim of the study is to study the role of a teacher in reducing early school leaving and to reveal the necessary forms of support for the performance of pedagogical activity. Data for this study came from a survey and focus group discussion. 815 teachers participated in the study. Analysis of the data reveals that there are several dimensions in the role of the teacher in reducing early school leaving: creating a favorable and safe learning environment, promoting cooperation with parents and colleagues, improving one's pedagogical competence, helping students to identify and solve learning and interpersonal problems, and revealing their mental and physical potential. The research results show main areas of professional development of teachers: sharing experience with colleagues and learning from each other, learning student's individuality at a greater extent, diversification of teaching methods, promoting personal development.

... Bandura identified the major sources of information for selfefficacy: vicarious experience, enactive attainment, verbal persuasion, and physiological state (Bandura, 1982). Vicarious experience or modelling refers to the visual experience of a pregnant woman when she sees others are successfully performing similar behaviours (Maddux, 2009). As a result, this experience encourages the pregnant woman about her ability to perform the same behaviour successfully. ...

Aim: This study aims to provide an understanding of the concept of self-efficacy in its implications in promoting adherence to healthy behaviours among pregnant women. Design: Concept analysis guided by Wilson 1963 framework. Methods: An electronic search of the literature published from 2009-2019 was conducted using the following databases: CINAHL, PubMed, ERIC, PsycINFO, and Google Scholar. After an in-depth review of the literature, the data were analysed, and the findings were synthesized. Results: It was found that self-efficacy is a multidimensional, dynamic, and contextual concept that is shaped according to a pregnant woman's previous experiences, the gained knowledge, presence of family empowerment, professional support, and the woman's emotional status. Self-efficacy influences a pregnant woman's cognitive process by taking quality decision-making, setting practical goals, and having a plan to overcome barriers and challenges. Conclusion: Self-efficacy is an essential predictor of adherence to the recommended healthy behaviours; hence, it should be part of any prenatal health promotion interventions.

... Higher self-efficacy enables individuals to boost their optimism level in a given domain (Maddux, 2002). Social cognitive career theory confirms that individuals rely on their own capabilities in the course of career development (Ho and Sum, 2018). ...

Purpose This study examines the relationship of positive career shocks and career optimism. The mediating role of career decision-making self-efficacy (CDSE) between positive career shocks and career optimism, and the moderating role of consideration of future consequences – immediate (CFC-I) between CDSE and career optimism is checked. Design/methodology/approach Through cluster sampling, cross-sectional data from 192 professionals of electronic media industry were collected via an electronically administered questionnaire. For preliminary descriptive data analysis SPSS version 21 was used. SmartPLS version 3.0 was used for testing the proposed hypotheses. Findings The results showed that positive career shocks have a relationship with career optimism via CDSE. Also, CFC-I moderated the relationship of CDSE and career optimism such that the relationship of CDSE and career optimism was stronger at higher level of CFC-I. Practical implications The study provides implications for the career consultants, human resource professionals and senior management of organizations. All these stakeholders can strive to build an inventory of positive career shocks. Also, shifting to a surprised business model of announcing compensations and promotions is another area to work on. The results of this study further suggest disengaging the fresh potential employees in the initial processes of recruitment. Interdepartmental coordination of health and safety department and human resource management department is also very important implication of this study to highlight the positive aspects of being optimistic. Originality/value The study is among the few empirical studies which investigates the relationship between positive career shocks and career optimism via CDSE. Also, in light of the latest call of various empirical works in the domain, this study adds a moderating variable i.e. CFC-I in predicting career optimism. Furthermore, contrary to the conventional approach of applying students' data on career models, this study tests the proposed career model on data collected from professionals.

Despite being an inert treatment, placebo has been repeatedly shown to induce the experience of automatic symptom relief, a therapeutic effect over which a person has no control. We tested whether a placebo that participants believed was an active drug would induce them to take action to overcome their symptomatic impairment, a self-efficacious role we term an activating placebo effect. Specifically, we tested whether a placebo presented to spider-phobic participants as a fear-reducing drug would induce them to approach a live tarantula. Sixty spider-phobic participants, identified by a fear questionnaire and assessing their approach behavior toward a live tarantula, were randomized to take a placebo, presented either as propranolol or a placebo, or to a no-treatment control group. Participants who believed the placebo was propranolol increased in their willingness to approach the tarantula, and actually moved physically closer to it, relative to the other two groups. They did so despite experiencing higher levels of fear, and subsequently improved in their self-efficacy beliefs about tolerating fear when encountering a spider. Changes in willingness to approach the tarantula mediated changes in approach behavior, which in turn mediated changes in self-efficacy. These results represent the first explicit demonstration of an activating placebo effect.

Marc Kaplan
James E. Maddux

This study examined the role of personal and shared goals in marital satisfaction. Two constructs were investigated. Perceived support for personal goals was defined as the degree to which a spouse views the marital relationship as facilitating or hindering achievement of his or her personal goals. Collective efficacy for collective goals was defined as the degree to which a spouse believes that the couple is capable of accomplishing its shared goals. It was hypothesized that each variable would make a unique contribution to the prediction of marital satisfaction. Results of a survey of 117 married couples supported this hypothesis.

James E. Maddux

This article reviews the major social cognitive models of adherence or compliance in health and exercise behavior and attempts to show that these models are more similar to each other than different from each other. Self-efficacy theory and the theory of reasoned action/planned behavior have guided most of the theory-based research on exercise behavior. Two other models, protection motivation theory and the health belief model, have guided much research on the role of social cognitive factors in other health behaviors. These models are comprised largely of the same basic set of social cognitive variables: self-efficacy expectancy, outcome expectancy, outcome value, and intention. Two other factors, situational cues and habits, although not common to all the models, round out the theoretical picture by explaining how the relationship between the major social cognitive variables and behavior may change with repeated performance of a behavior over time.An integration of these models is offered using the theory of planned behavior as a foundation. It is suggested that research on health and exercise behavior that pits one model against another to determine which one is the better predictor of behavior is likely to be unproductive due to the striking similarities of the models. It is suggested instead that theorists and researchers focus their efforts on integration of the major social cognitive models and on determining the relative predictive utility of the various social cognitive factors with various health behaviors and in various contexts.

Alan E. Kazdin

Examined the effects of client elaboration of imagery during covert modeling treatment and the effects of treatment of unassertiveness on self-efficacy. 48 nonassertive clients (Conflict Resolution Inventory) received covert modeling alone, covert modeling plus scene elaboration, covert modeling plus yoked elaborations, or assertion-relevant scenes (nonassertive model) plus elaboration. Covert modeling led to improvements on self-report and behavioral measures of assertiveness and self-efficacy. Covert modeling plus elaboration achieved greater change than did other covert modeling groups. Treatment effects transferred to novel role-playing scenes and were maintained up to the 6-mo follow-up assessment. The treatment effects brought clients within the range of 45 other Ss who regarded themselves as particularly adept in social situations requiring assertive behavior and had not sought treatment. (26 ref)

Friedrich Försterling

Integrates theoretical models and research concerning the antecedents of causal attributions with clinically relevant conceptions about attributional consequences and cognitive and rational-emotive therapy. It is argued that an inclusion of research about attributional antecedents into (clinical) models of attributional change (a) increases the range of applicability of attributional approaches in clinical psychology; (b) allows the making of predictions about when attributional changes can be attempted; (c) can be used to derive techniques for alterations of causal cognitions; and (d) can provide constructs for systematizing therapeutic techniques of cognitive behavior modification as advocated by A. T. Beck (1967, 1976) and A. Ellis (1962; see also PA, Vol 73:4293) and Ellis and R. Grieger (1977). Beck's and Ellis's cognitive therapies are described, and the similarities between these theories and attributional conceptions are noted. It is suggested that the similarities between attribution theory and cognitive psychotherapies illustrate the fruitfulness and wide range of applicability of cognitive models of motivation, emotion, and therapeutic change. (43 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)

Judith Cohen Conger
Susan Phillips Keane

Reviews intervention techniques designed to treat social skills deficits in children whose peer relationship difficulties result in isolation or withdrawal. Although some of these techniques appear to hold promise, the conclusions are limited owing to methodological problems, such as small numbers of Ss, different assessment procedures across studies, and lack of extended follow-up. Major conceptual difficulties also arise from different criteria used in S selection and assessment. Further, there is a lack of basic research designed to discover critical components and processes that constitute social skills, particularly as they relate to age and sex of the child. Finally, the evidence for long-term consequences of shyness is questioned. (47 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)

This controlled clinical trial tested virtual reality exposure (VRE) therapy for the fear of flying (FOF), a relatively new and innovative way to do exposure therapy, and compared it to standard (in vivo) exposure therapy (SE) and a wait list (WL) control with a 6- and 12-month follow-up. Eighty-three participants with FOF were randomly assigned to VRE, SE, or WL. Seventy-five participants, 25 per group, completed the study. Twenty-three WL participants completed randomly assigned treatment following the waiting period. Treatment consisted of 4 sessions of anxiety management training followed either by exposure to a virtual airplane (VRE) or an actual airplane at the airport (SE) conducted over 6 weeks. Results indicate that VRE was superior to WL on all measures, including willingness to fly on the posttreatment flight (76% for VRE and SE; 20% for WL). VRE and SE were essentially equivalent on standardized questionnaires, willingness to fly, anxiety ratings during the flight, self-ratings of improvement, and patient satisfaction with treatment. Follow-up assessments at 6 and 12 months indicated that treatment gains were maintained, with more than 70% of respondents from both groups reporting continued flying at follow-up. Based on these findings, the use of VRE in the treatment of FOF was supported in this controlled study, suggesting that experiences in the virtual world can change experiences in the real world.

Source: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/285193896_Self-Efficacy_The_Power_of_Believing_You_Can

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